To work for the federal government and access sensitive information, you need to pass a background check of which there are three progressively more intense levels: Credentials, Suitability (Public Trust), and Eligibility for Access to Classified Information (the basis for a security clearance). The level of investigation and the stringency of the criteria for qualifying at each successive level varies in both the scope of matters reviewed and the intensity of the background investigation. 

Executive branch positions relevant to national security (e.g. DOD, State Department, FBI) generally require a security clearance, which you need to access classified information. In comparison, it is much rarer for staffers in Congress to require a clearance, though there are exceptions (e.g. some staff on the armed services and intelligence committees in the House and the Senate).

There are different security clearance levels—the three main ones are Confidential, Secret, and Top Secret (TS)—depending on the position’s requirements. On top of a Secret or TS clearance, you may also require access to “Sensitive Compartmented Information” (SCI) for some roles, allowing you to work inside a vault containing secrets.¹ Jobs requiring the highest level of clearances are typically denoted as “TS/SCI”. Some of these, at the very peak of access, may require a polygraph exam.²

Getting cleared involves an extensive background investigation which can take months up to more than one year. Depending on the position and agency, you might be able to get an “interim” clearance based on a brief investigation, which allows you to perform classified work in a temporary capacity until a full background investigation has been completed.

To estimate how long your clearance process is likely to take, look at the Trusted Workforce 2.0 – Personnel Vetting: Quarterly Progress Updates. These quarterly reports include statistics on the average processing times for different clearance categories, typically on pages 13-14 in the .pdf under “Key Performance Indicators”.

Why security clearances matter

For a minority of federal jobs, passing a background check and receiving clearance is among the most important barriers to employment.³ The most common reasons for clearance denials are bad debt, lying during the security clearance process, foreign influence, and recent drug use.

Conversely, an existing clearance (or the ability to obtain one) can be among the most valuable assets for securing federal work with access to sensitive information. So, navigating the clearance process effectively may be among the most important ways to advance your federal career. In particular, if you can get a job that confers you a clearance, that’s very beneficial since it means that you can take subsequent cleared roles without having to go through the whole process again—and that’s very appealing to the employer. 

Some government positions have especially strict requirements regarding clearances and background investigations, including senior political appointments and career positions in certain parts of the national security and intelligence community. If you’re aiming to secure one of these roles down the road, you should be especially mindful of potential clearance-related hurdles.

Failing a clearance application or other background check can create a permanent record that makes future federal employment more difficult; this means it’s better to avoid such situations in the first place if possible. At the same time, if you are declined, you can generally be sponsored again after a year and a day. And almost all factors that can make getting a security clearance more difficult (e.g. bad debt, recent drug use) can be mitigated and won’t disqualify you completely.⁴

Consulting a security clearance lawyer

The bureaucracies that manage clearances and related processes across the federal government are complex, opaque, and heterogeneous, making them hard to navigate using only public/online information sources. As such, talking to people with first-hand knowledge can be very helpful; if you can afford to do so, we recommend talking to a lawyer specializing in federal background checks early in the process of pursuing a career in government service.

Anecdotally, clearance-related problems can cause severe distress for some people, especially when they lack good information about their situation, get stuck in a months- or years-long bureaucratic limbo, or lack a clear sense of their options going forward. Speaking with a lawyer can help you avoid these issues upfront, but it can also help you resolve these issues after they arise. There are also open-source clearinghouses for general and specific information on the process, such as the National Security Lawyers Association.

Security clearance tips

If you’re a student or recent graduate, internships in national security-relevant government agencies can be a great way to get a security clearance. The clearance process is typically expedited for summer internships, saving you valuable time in the future when you apply for full-time jobs and also making you more competitive (as you’ll have a leg up over candidates without a clearance).

First-time applicants may receive some leniency for past behavior. The approximately 72 federal Security Offices and their adjudicators know their agencies need talent, and understand that newcomers might not have been familiar ahead of time with the rules governing access to sensitive information.

Still, there are several things you can do to improve your chances and speed up the process of getting a security clearance in the future: 

1. Start early to gather relevant information (e.g. where you lived and traveled to, employers, your schools, foreign contacts) by considering the questions you’ll be asked when you apply. At >135 pages, the standard form for security clearance applications (i.e. the SF-86) can feel overwhelming; helpfully, there is a spreadsheet template for preparing your clearance application to help you collect the right information early, and save you time and headaches later.⁵ It is often beneficial to begin recording this information now—while it’s relatively fresh—than delaying your clearance process later when it might be harder to access the relevant information.
2. Avoid using illegal drugs, including drugs that are legal locally but illegal federally, such as marijuana in many US states. Whether drug use affects clearance eligibility depends on factors like the types of drugs, the frequency, recency, and circumstances of use. While experimentation during college with marijuana generally does not prevent you from getting a security clearance several years in the future, we recommend avoiding any illegal drugs if you are interested in working for the government later. (The reporting window for past illegal drug usage is 7 years, but in many agencies reported illegal drug use that took place years prior is not per se ground for rejection; different agencies have different policies on this.)
3. Manage your debt and pay your taxes. Financial considerations are the most common cause for clearance rejections. Pay your taxes on time, even if the federal or state governments owe you, and keep your short term, revolving debt low. And strive for a clean credit report since it’s one of the first items a Security Office will look at.
4. Inform yourself about reporting requirements for “foreign contacts.” The clearance process asks for your “close and continuing foreign contacts”; seek advice on who counts and does not count as a foreign contact. As one of the linked article notes, “many well-meaning security clearance applicants over-report their foreign contacts,” which can lead to substantial delays and can sometimes “rise to the level of an initial security clearance denial that takes time and expense to challenge.” If you’re uncertain who among your foreign contacts passes the threshold, consider talking to a security clearance lawyer, which could save you significant time (and even money, if you can thereby avoid an initial clearance denial). Anecdotally, people can interpret the foreign contact reporting requirements very differently, leading many to over-report.
5. Consider potential signals of “foreign influence” and how to mitigate them, especially ties to sensitive countries like China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, etc. Beyond the reporting requirements for foreign nationals mentioned above, there are other links to foreign countries that might raise concerns during your clearance process, including: financial interests in foreign countries (e.g. non-US stocks and property), pursuing foreign citizenship, voting in foreign elections, living a large portion of your adult life outside the US, receiving benefits from a foreign government, or working for a foreign government.
6. If you experience mental health challenges, do not delay treatment. Some people fear that if they seek support or treatment for a suspected or confirmed mental health problem, this will harm their chances of passing background checks down the road or threaten their current federal employment, and this fear causes them to avoid or delay getting help. This is generally a mistake. It can be very beneficial to discuss these concerns and your mental health challenges with a security clearance lawyer, as they can estimate potential risks and identify ways to mitigate or eliminate them.
7. Consider other clearance-relevant factors that could impact you, including criminal conduct, severe financial trouble, alcohol abuse (particularly Driving Under the Influence, DUI), and lying during the security clearance process.
8. Register for the Selective Service by age 25 if you’re male (it’s required by law and employers check for this)

If you’re looking for further resources to better understand the clearance process and how to prepare, people we’ve advised have found this and this security clearance FAQ particularly helpful.

What to expect: “a”djudication vs. “A”djudication

Technically, adjudication of your security clearance begins with the filing of your initial form, the SF-86 (or “eQip” in electronic form). Each question on the SF-86 maps to one or more of the adjudicative guidelines as established in 2017 by the Security Executive Agent Directive 4 (SEAD 4). 

It is very important to go slow in filling out the form—do not guess or speculate. Security considers how you fill out the form as much as what information goes into the form. Being “security sloppy” in the recording of data can be as much a concern as any single issue under an individual guideline. Based on your answers, reviewers will do one of the following things: 

1. approve, 
2. approve an interim clearance, or 
3. deny (or propose denial, based on the agency) and give you a chance to respond to their security concerns. 

If your initial application is denied for some reason, you can still respond and appeal. If you do so, this begins “Adjudication” with a capital “A”. Now, the process splinters into more than 72 different systems of adjudication, typically one for each executive branch office or agency; Congress and the Supreme Court also have their own processes, as do independent regulatory commissions and agencies.

As part of the adjudication process, you will be able to submit your evidence and a written reply, and you will have the opportunity for at least one personal appearance. Your odds of success in appeal will depend on your circumstances and the strength of your evidence. This is another example of why being careful in collecting and tracking relevant files and data is important.

Appendix: Transferring security clearances

If you already have a security clearance, will this transfer to another agency? In short, it depends. 

The ability to move cleared federal employees and federal contractors from one agency to another is referred to as “security clearance reciprocity”. In practice, this is a complex area and there can be significant impediments to reciprocity. For example, if you got cleared by an intelligence agency and want to move over into a role requiring a clearance in the Department of Commerce, this likely won’t be automatic. Speaking with a security clearance lawyer can help you navigate the process of switching cleared positions between federal agencies or contractors.

Here are some relevant resources:

1. Security Clearance Reciprocity: Obstacles and Opportunities (2019), Intelligence and National Security Alliance, Security Policy Reform Council
2. Reciprocity of Security Clearances, DC Security Clearance Consultations 
3. Clearance Reciprocity Still Lagging Among Intelligence Community Agencies (2023)
4. Security Clearance Reciprocity: Crossover from DoD to DHS (2023)